Sejarah matematika

Halaman dari Buku Ikhtisar Perhitungan dengan Penyelesaian dan Perimbangan karya Muḥammad bin Mūsā al-Khawārizmī (sekitar 820 Masehi)

Cabang pengkajian yang dikenal sebagai sejarah matematika adalah penyelidikan terhadap asal mula penemuan di dalam matematika dan sedikit perluasannya, penyelidikan terhadap metode dan notasi matematika pada masa silam.

Sebelum zaman modern dan penyebaran ilmu pengetahuan ke seluruh dunia, contoh-contoh tertulis dari pengembangan matematika telah mengalami kemilau hanya di beberapa tempat. Tulisan matematika terkuno yang telah ditemukan adalah Plimpton 322 (matematika Babilonia sekitar 1900 SM),^[1] Lembaran Matematika Rhind (Matematika Mesir sekitar 2000-1800 SM)^[2] dan Lembaran Matematika Moskwa (matematika Mesir sekitar 1890 SM). Semua tulisan itu membahas teorema yang umum dikenal sebagai teorema Pythagoras, yang tampaknya menjadi pengembangan matematika tertua dan paling tersebar luas setelah aritmetika dasar dan geometri.

Sumbangan matematikawan Yunani memurnikan metode-metode (khususnya melalui pengenalan penalaran deduktif dan kekakuan matematika di dalam pembuktian matematika) dan perluasan pokok bahasan matematika.^[3] Kata "matematika" itu sendiri diturunkan dari kata Yunani kuno, μάθημα (mathema), yang berarti "mata pelajaran".^[4] Matematika Cina membuat sumbangan dini, termasuk notasi posisional. Sistem bilangan Hindu-Arab dan aturan penggunaan operasinya, digunakan hingga kini, mungkin dikembangakan melalui kuliah pada milenium pertama Masehi di dalam matematika India dan telah diteruskan ke Barat melalui matematika Islam.^[5][6] Matematika Islam, pada gilirannya, mengembangkan dan memperluas pengetahuan matematika ke peradaban ini.^[7] Banyak naskah berbahasa Yunani dan Arab tentang matematika kemudian diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Latin, yang mengarah pada pengembangan matematika lebih jauh lagi di Zaman Pertengahan Eropa.

Dari zaman kuno melalui Zaman Pertengahan, ledakan kreativitas matematika seringkali diikuti oleh abad-abad kemandekan. Bermula pada abad Renaisans Italia pada abad ke-16, pengembangan matematika baru, berinteraksi dengan penemuan ilmiah baru, dibuat pada pertumbuhan eksponensial yang berlanjut hingga kini.

Sumber : Wiki

Penemuan Rumus Matematika Para penemu rumus

Sejarah Penemuan Rumus Matematika Para penemu rumus

Penemu Rumus Aljabar

Nama lengkapnya Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibnu Musa al-Khwarizmi.

Pak Al-Khwarizmi yang dianggap sebagai Bapak Aljabar  itu lahir pada tahun 780M di Khawariz (sekarang Khiva, Uzbekistan).

Penemu Himpunan

Georg Cantor (1845-1918) ialah seorang matematikawan

asal Jerman keturunan Yahudi. Ia adalah orang pertama yang menemukan teori himpunan

Penemu Notasi Matematika

Leonhard Euler (lahir di Basel, Swiss, 15 April 1707 – meninggal di St. Petersburg, Rusia,18 September 1783 pada umur 76 tahun) (dilafalkan "oiler") adalah matematikawan danfisikawan Swiss.

Ia dipandang (bersama Archimedes, Gauss, dan Newton) sebagai salah satu matematikawan terbesar sepanjang masa.

Symbol ketertakhinggaa

Penemu Teori Logaritma

Alexander Graham Bell (lahir di Edinburgh, Skotlandia, Britania Raya, 3 Maret 1847 – meninggal di Beinn Bhreagh, Nova Scotia, Kanada, 2 Agustus 1922 pada umur 75 tahun) adalah seorang ilmuwan, pencipta, dan pendiri perusahaan telepon Bell. Selain karyanya dalamteknologi telekomunikasi, ia juga menyumbangkan kemajuan penting dalam teknologipenerbangan dan hidrofoil.

. Rene Deskartes (prancis 1596-1650 M)
 
Dalam karyanya La geometrie,Descartes memperlihatkan bahwa sepasang garis lirus yang berpotongan dapat digunakan untuk memperlihatkan posii titik pada sebuah bidang.untuk menghormatinya,konsep tersebut dinamakan sistem koordinat cartesius.dengan sistem ini,muncullah cabang matematika baru,yaitu geometri analitik.

Leonhard Euler (swiss 1707-1783 M)
 Euler adalah salah satu ahli matematika terkemuka sepanjang masa.Geometri dan kalkualus mencatat banyak sekali pemikirannya,tapi yang paling utam Euler telah menyelidiki suatu bidang baru yang dinamakan topologi

John Napier ( skotlandia 1550-1617 M)
 Ide tentang logaritma ditemukan oLeH bangsawan dari Merchiston ini.Dengan bantuan logaritma,perhitunagan yang melibatkan bilangan-bilangan besar dapat dipermudah.

Carl F.Gauss ( Jerman 1777-1855 M )

 Gauss adaLah salah seorang dari tiga ahli matematika besar sepanjang masa selain Archimedes dan newton.Pada umur sepuluh tahun,dia membuat gurunya terkagum-kagum dengan memberikan rumus untuk menghitung deret 1+2+3+...+100

Ibnu Sina (Aveciena 980-1037 M)
 Saudara ketiga yaitu al-Hasan”, cerita sumber Arab, “adalah besar dalam geometri. Dia sangat berbakat, dan tak seorangpun mendekati kemampuannya walaupun sedikit. Ingatannya sangat kuat, dan ia memiliki kemampuan abstraksi yang luar biasa, sehingga mampu menjawab berbagai soal, yang tak seorangpun sebelumnya bisa memecahkannya. Kadang ia begitu tenggelam dalam berpikir, sehingga dalam suatu konferensi dia bisa tidak mendengar sedikitpun”. Sementara itu bila ia sedang sibuk dengan suatu soal, terjadilah -seperti ceritanya sendiri - “aku lihat dunia di depan mataku tiba-tiba menjadi gelap, dan aku merasa seperti dalam mimpi”.

Karl Weierstrass

Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass (Weierstraß, 1815 -1897 ) ialah seorang matematikawan  Prusia  yang mengembangkan teori lengkap tentang deret fungsi  dan menyusun legitimasi operasi-operasi yang demikian sebagai pengintegralan  dan pendiferensialan  suku demi suku.

Penemu Matematika

Ternyata penemu matematika adalah orang muslim 

 

 

Penemu Aljabar adalah Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi. Aljabar berasal dari Bahasa Arab "al-jabr" yang berarti "pertemuan", "hubungan" atau "penyelesaian", adalah cabang matematika yang dapat dicirikan sebagai generalisasi dari bidang aritmatika. Aljabar juga merupakan nama sebuah struktur aljabar abstrak, yaitu aljabar dalam sebuah bidang.

Jenis-jenis Aljabar

Aljabar dapat dipilah menjadi kategori berikut:

-Aljabar dasar, yang mencatat sifat-sifat operasi bilangan riil, menggunakan simbol sebagai "pengganti" untuk menandakan konstanta dan variabel, dan mempelajari aturan tentang ungkapan dan persamaan matematis yang melibatkan simbol-simbol tersebut.

-Aljabar abstrak, yang secara aksiomatis mendefinisikan dan menyelidiki struktur aljabar seperti kelompok matematika, cincin matematika dan matematika bidang.

-Aljabar linear, yang mempelajari sifat-sifat khusus ruang vektor (termasuk matriks).

-Aljabar universal, yang mempelajari sifat-sifat yang dimiliki semua struktur aljabar.

-Aljabar komputer, yang mengumpulkan manipulasi simbolis benda-benda matematis.

Matematika

Langsung ke: navigasi, cari

Euklides, matematikawan Yunani, abad ke-3 SM, seperti yang dilukiskan oleh Raffaello Sanzio di dalam detail ini dari Sekolah Athena.^[1]

Matematika (dari bahasa Yunani: μαθηματικά - mathēmatiká) adalah studi besaran, struktur, ruang, dan perubahan. Para matematikawan mencari berbagai pola,^[2][3] merumuskan konjektur baru, dan membangun kebenaran melalui metode deduksi yang kaku dari aksioma-aksioma dan definisi-definisi yang bersesuaian.^[4]

Terdapat perselisihan tentang apakah objek-objek matematika seperti bilangan dan titik hadir secara alami, atau hanyalah buatan manusia. Seorang matematikawan Benjamin Peirce menyebut matematika sebagai "ilmu yang menggambarkan simpulan-simpulan yang penting".^[5] Di pihak lain, Albert Einstein menyatakan bahwa "sejauh hukum-hukum matematika merujuk kepada kenyataan, mereka tidaklah pasti; dan sejauh mereka pasti, mereka tidak merujuk kepada kenyataan."^[6]

Melalui penggunaan penalaran logika dan abstraksi, matematika berkembang dari pencacahan, perhitungan, pengukuran, dan pengkajian sistematis terhadap bangun dan pergerakan benda-benda fisika. Matematika praktis telah menjadi kegiatan manusia sejak adanya rekaman tertulis. Argumentasi kaku pertama muncul di dalam Matematika Yunani, terutama di dalam karya Euklides, Elemen.

Matematika selalu berkembang, misalnya di Cina pada tahun 300 SM, di India pada tahun 100 M, dan di Arab pada tahun 800 M, hingga zaman Renaisans, ketika temuan baru matematika berinteraksi dengan penemuan ilmiah baru yang mengarah pada peningkatan yang cepat di dalam laju penemuan matematika yang berlanjut hingga kini.^[7]

Kini, matematika digunakan di seluruh dunia sebagai alat penting di berbagai bidang, termasuk ilmu alam, teknik, kedokteran/medis, dan ilmu sosial seperti ekonomi, dan psikologi. Matematika terapan, cabang matematika yang melingkupi penerapan pengetahuan matematika ke bidang-bidang lain, mengilhami dan membuat penggunaan temuan-temuan matematika baru, dan kadang-kadang mengarah pada pengembangan disiplin-disiplin ilmu yang sepenuhnya baru, seperti statistika dan teori permainan.

Para matematikawan juga bergulat di dalam matematika murni, atau matematika untuk perkembangan matematika itu sendiri, tanpa adanya penerapan di dalam pikiran, meskipun penerapan praktis yang menjadi latar munculnya matematika murni ternyata seringkali ditemukan terkemudian.^[8]

^{Sumber : Wiki}

Cara Agar Tidak Jerawatan

Ada banyak cara yang dilakukan oleh kaum remaja untuk merawat wajah agar tidak mudah berjerawat seperti mengoleskan produk kecantikan anti jerawat, mencuci muka dengan facial serta penggunaan produk dari bahan alami. Memang jerawat biasanya akan tumbuh subur pada wajah anak-anak muda dan usia remaja. Sewaktu remaja saya juga termasuk orang yang banyak jerawat. Tapi anda jangan terlalu khawatir karena banyak tips atau cara yang bisa dilakukan untuk mencegah tumbuhnya jerawat ini.

Kulit wajah yang banyak jerawat akan mengurangi rasa percaya diri. Apalagi bentuk wajah yang kurang menarik ditambah dengan totol-totol hitam bekas jerawat jelas akan membuat seseoarang minder (malu). Jika ketemu dengan teman yang usil, maka ia akan sering mengerjai kita didepan teman-teman lain. Tapi jangan sampai putus asa, karena tips-tips dalam merawat kesehatan wajah dapat anda temui banyak di internet. Walaupun harus anda pilah-pilah dahulu mana yang bagus dan masuk akal untuk dicoba.

Tumbuhnya jerawat pada usia muda kadang tidak bisa terhindarkan. Kalaupun ada yang tidak terkena oleh gejala ini mungkin hanya sedikit. Bahkan akibat pengaruh keturunan ada juga orang yang mempunyai jerawat besar-besar dan subur. Yang tidak mengenakkan biasanya bekas dari jerawat ini akan membentuk lubang-lubang pada muka.

Apa sebenarnya penyebab kulit muka berjerawat. Menurut pengalaman saya pribadi yaitu karena malas cuci muka dan tidur terlalu larut malam. Seingat saya dulu waktu sma dan kuliah jika saya tidur larut malam (begadang) dan wktu tidur tidak membersihkan wajah maka bisa dipastikan beberapa jerawat ukuran besar akan timbul. Jika sudah timbul jadinya serba salah, mau dipecahkan takut teradapat bekas luka dan membuat jerawat akan tumbuh pada bgian wajah lainnya. Tapi jika tidak dipecahkan jadinya tidak pede dengan jerawat yang besar-besar di muka. Dari hasil googling ditambah pendapat saya pribadi maka penyebab tumbuhnya jerawat adalah sebagai berikut :

• Penyebab faktor keturunan (genetik). Percaya atau tidak faktor ini akan mempengaruhi seseorang akan peluang tumbuhnya jerawat. Coba anda perhatikan, biasanya orang tua yang berjerawat juga akan turun ada anaknya. Walaupun memang itu semua tergantung usaha masing-masing untuk mencegahnya.

• Wajah yang jarang dibersihkan. Jika wajah anda sedang kotor akibat debu jalanan, asap kendaraan dan kotoran-kotoran wajah lainnya, maka anda wajib untuk membersihkan wajah anda. Jangan sekali-kali pada kondisi ini anda langsung istirahat dan tidur. Karena secara pengalaman pribadi, jerawat akan benar-benar tumbuh. Tapi pada orang-orang usia dewasa biasanya tidak terlalu berpengaruh.
• Tidur terlalu larut malam. Jika anda orang yang tidak suka berjerawat, maka jangan biasakan tidur hingga larut malam. Secara medis saya tidak bisa menjelakan, tetapi ini saya yakin sangat beralasan. Tidurlah sesuai jadwal yaitu setelah sholat isya (yang muslim) atau kisaran jam setengah sembilan malam.
• Tingkat stress. Ini ada hubungannya dengan emosi anda. Boleh percaya atau tidak banyak orang bilang jerawat juga diakibatkan oleh cinta yang tidak terungkapkan wkwkkk..kk.. (alay : mode on). Yang pasti hindari stress karena akan mempengaruhi kesehatan tubuh secara keseluruhan. Bagaimana supaya tidak stress ? jadilah pribadi yang selalu bersyukur, jangan banyak angan-angan serta perbanyak ibadah mendekatkan diri kepaa Sang Khalik supaya jiwa anda tenang.
• Hormon yang tidak seimbang. Gejala ini biasanya ditandai bertambahnya kelenjar minyak pada muka.

Jadi, apa tips merawat muka agar tidak berjerawat (secara alami). Secara logika tentunya bisa kita tarik dari alasan-alasan yang menyebabkan timbulnya jerawat ini. Jadi dengan tau penyebabnya kita bisa melakukan pencegahan. Mungkin banyak sekali variasi dalam usaha merawat bagian tubuh yang penting satu ini. Tapi saya akan coba memberikan tips-tips yang saya simpulkan dari beberapa artikel di internet. Anda boleh mencoba jika menurut pemikiran anda cocok dan masuk akal. Berikut cara-caranya :

1. Bersihkan kulit muka anda secara teratur. Apalagi pada saat sedang kotor akibat debu dan asap kendaraan, maka anda wajib membersihkan dengan air. Lebih bagus lagi bersihkan dengan air hangat supaya pori-pori muka mudah terbuka. Pori-pori kulit yang terbuka dapat membantu menyingkirkan kotoran dengan mudah. Anda boleh membersihkan muka anda dengan facial produk kecantikan. Tapi ingat anda harus bijak dalam memakainya, baca terlebih dahulu komposisi dan efek samping produk yang bersangkutan. Kalau bisa gunakan produk yang sudah terpercaya.
2. Tidurlah pada jam-jam yang sudah ditentukan. Jika anda tidak percaya dengan tips satu ini, anda boleh mencobanya. Cobalah anda tidur di atas jam 12 malam, maka jerawat anda akan muncul dan menganggu aktivitas anda (untuk seumuran remaja). Usahakan tidur sebelum jam sembilan malam. Karena efek positifnya banyak sekali bagi kesehatan tubuh secara keseluruhan. Selain itu karena kurang tidur, kondisi wajah anda akan lusuh dan tidak segar maka jauh dari kesan awet muda.
3. Jangan terlalu stress. Ini sudah saya jelaskan pada bagian penyebab tumbuhnya jerawat. Menghindari stress dapat membantu anda dalam mencegah jerawat. Jadi wajah anda akan tetap terawat tanpa jerawat.
4. Membersihkan wajah dengan bahan alami seperti jeruk nipis. Khasiat buah satu ini memang sangat banyak dan terkenal. Bagian bersih membersih ia jagoannya. Dari piring sampai muka ente, buah ini bisa bersihkan..(haha..ha..ha). Kandungan vitamin c pada jeruk bagus untuk memperlancar proses penggantian sel kulit mati (regenerasi sel). Kemudian zat yang terkandung dalam jeruk ini dapat mudah menyingkirkan kotoran-kotoran yang melekat kuat pada kulit wajah (seperti minyak).
5. Masker wajah dengan bahan alami seperti alpukat (avocado). Ambil daging alpukat secukupnya, kemudian tempelkan pada wajah yang sudah dicuci bersih. Diamkan selama kurang lebih satu jam. Terakhir bilas dan bersihkan wajah serta lihat hasilnya. Lakukan secara teratur dan rutin.

Sebenarnya masih banyak tips-tips perawatan wajah agar tidak berjerawat lainnya. Ini tentunya dalam hal mencegah timbulnya jerawat pada muka. Tapi saya hanya bisa memberikan anda 5 tips tersebut yang saya anggap cukup penting. Asal mau mencari dan membaca, sekarang ini mau masalah apa saja mudah ditemukan solusinya. Ini karena semakin banyak sumber informasi seperti buku-buku, televisi sampai media internet.

Anda mungkin mau lihat gambar kondisi orang yang berjerawat.

Bagian kepala yang penting selain wajah yaitu rambut. Saya yakin anda juga tidak akan percaya diri apabila rambut anda bermasalah. Apalagi terkadang memaksa anda untuk menggaruk-garuk kepala yang gatal di hadapan orang ramai. Untuk dapat ilmunya baca artikel saya tentang merawat rambut supaya tidak mudah rontok dan berketombe.
Cukup sekian info dari saya tentang cara merawat wajah agar tidak mudah berjerawat yang saya analisa dari berbagai sumber. Anda boleh saja mencoba tips-tips tersebut jika anda merasa bahwa cara tersebut cukup akal untuk dilakukan. Usaha itu perlu untuk mengubah keadaan, apalagi dalam hal usaha merawat wajah.

All About Taekwondo

Taekwondo

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Taekwondo

A World Taekwondo Federation taekwondo sparring match
Also known as	Taekwon-Do, Tae Kwon-Do, Tae Kwon Do
Focus	Striking
Country of origin	Korea
Famous practitioners	Hee Il Cho, Chang Keun Choi, Choi Hong Hi, Kwang Jo Choi, Young Il Kong, Han Cha Kyo, Nam Tae Hi, Jong Soo Park, Jung Tae Park, Chong Chul Rhee, Jhoon Rhee, Ki Ha Rhee
Olympic sport	Since 1988 (WTF regulations)

Taekwondo
Hangul	태권도
Hanja	跆拳道
Revised Romanization	Taegwondo
McCune–Reischauer	T'aekwŏndo

This article contains Korean text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Hangul or Hanja.

Taekwondo /ˌtaɪˌkwɒnˈdoʊ/ (Korean 태권도 (跆拳道) [tʰɛk͈wʌndo]) is a martial art originating in Korea. It combines combat and self-defense techniques with sport and exercise. In 1989, taekwondo was the world's most popular martial art.^[1] Gyeorugi (pronounced [kjʌɾuɡi]), a type of sparring, has been an Olympic event since 2000.

There are two main branches of taekwondo development, although they are not mutually exclusive. "Traditional taekwondo" typically refers to the martial art as it was established in the 1950s and 1960s in the South Korean military, and in various civilian organisations, including schools and universities. In particular, the names and symbolism of the traditional patterns often refer to elements of Korean history, culture and religious philosophy. 'Traditional Taekwon-Do' may refer to ITF Taekwon-Do as created by the founder of ITF Taekwon-Do General Choi Hong Hi on April 11, 1955. "Sport taekwondo" has developed in the decades since the 1950s and may have a somewhat different focus, especially in terms of its emphasis on speed and competition (as in Olympic sparring). Sport taekwondo is in turn subdivided into two main styles; one is practiced by WTF Taekwondo practitioners, and derives from Kukkiwon, the source of the sparring system sihap gyeorugi which is now an event at the summer Olympic Games and which is governed by the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF). Today, the Kukkiwon, or World Taekwondo Headquarters is the traditional center for WTF taekwondo; founded by Dr Kim Un Yong on May 25, 1973.. The other comes from the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF).^[2]

Although there are doctrinal and technical differences between sparring in the two main styles and among the various organizations, the art in general emphasizes kicks thrown from a mobile stance, employing the leg's greater reach and power (compared to the arm). Taekwondo training generally includes a system of blocks, kicks, punches, and open-handed strikes and may also include various take-downs or sweeps, throws, and joint locks. Some taekwondo instructors also incorporate the use of pressure points, known as jiapsul, as well as grabbing self-defense techniques borrowed from other martial arts, such as hapkido, judo or ssireum.

In Korean, tae (태, 跆) means "to strike or break with foot"; kwon (권, 拳) means "to strike or break with fist"; and do (도, 道) means "way", "method", or "path". Thus, taekwondo may be loosely translated as "the way of the foot and the hand."^[3] The name taekwondo is also written as taekwon-do, tae kwon-do or tae kwon do by various organizations.

Contents 1 History 2 Features 3 Organizations 4 Ranks, belts, and promotion 5 Philosophy 6 Competition 6.1 World Taekwondo Federation 6.2 International Taekwon-Do Federation 6.3 Other organizations 7 Safety 8 Korean commands 9 See also 10 References 11 External links

History

See also: Korean martial arts

The oldest Korean martial art was an amalgamation of unarmed combat styles developed by the three rival Korean Kingdoms of Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje,^[4] where young men were trained in unarmed combat techniques to develop strength, speed, and survival skills. The most popular of these techniques was ssireum and subak with taekkyeon being the most popular of the segments of subak. The Northern Goguryeo kingdom was a dominant force in Northern Korea and North Eastern China prior to common era and again from the 3rd century to the 6th century CE. Before the fall of Goguryeo Dynasty 6th century CE, the Shilla Kingdom asked for help in training its people for defence against pirate invasions. During this time a few select Silla warriors were given training in taekkyeon by the early masters from Koguryo. These Shilla warriors then became known as the Hwarang. The Hwarang set up a military academy for the sons of royalty in Silla called Hwarang-do, which means "the way of flowering manhood." The Hwarang studied taekkyeon, history, Confucian philosophy, ethics, Buddhist morality, social skills and military tactics. The guiding principles of the Hwarang warriors were based on Won Gwang's five codes of human conduct and included loyalty, filial duty, trustworthiness, valor and justice. Taekkyeon was spread throughout Korea because the Hwarang traveled all around the peninsula to learn about the other regions and people.

In spite of Korea's rich history of ancient and traditional martial arts, Korean martial arts faded into obscurity during the late Joseon Dynasty. Korean society became highly centralized under Korean Confucianism and martial arts were poorly regarded in a society whose ideals were epitomized by its scholar-kings.^[5] Formal practices of traditional martial arts such as subak and taekkyeon were reserved for sanctioned military uses. However, taekkyeon persisted into the 19th century as a folk game during the May-Dano festival and was still taught as the Military Martial Art under the last emperor of the Choson Dynasty.^[4]

During the occupation, Koreans who were able to study in Japan were exposed to Japanese martial arts.^[6] Others were exposed to martial arts in China and Manchuria.^[7][8][9]

When the occupation ended in 1945, Korean martial arts schools (kwans) began to open in Korea under various influences.^[7][10] There are differing views on the origins of the arts taught in these schools. Some believe that they taught martial arts that were based primarily upon the traditional Korean martial arts taekkyon and subak,^{[11][12][13][14][15]} or that taekwondo was derived from native Korean martial arts with influences from neighboring countries.^{[7][16][17][18][19][20]} Still others believe that these schools taught arts that were almost entirely based upon karate.^[21][22][23]

In 1952, at the height of the Korean War, there was a martial arts exhibition in which the kwans displayed their skills. In one demonstration, Nam Tae Hi smashed 13 roof tiles with a punch. Following this demonstration, South Korean President Syngman Rhee instructed Choi Hong Hi to introduce the martial arts to the Korean army. By the mid-1950s, nine kwans had emerged. Syngman Rhee ordered that the various schools unify under a single system. The name "taekwondo" was submitted by either Choi Hong Hi (of the Oh Do Kwan) or Song Duk Son (of the Chung Do Kwan), and was accepted on April 11, 1955. As it stands today, the nine kwans are the founders of taekwondo,^[24] though not all the kwans used the name. The Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) was formed in 1959/1961 to facilitate the unification.^[6][12][25]

In the early 1960s, taekwondo made its début worldwide with assignment of the original masters of taekwondo to various countries. Standardization efforts in South Korea stalled, as the kwans continued to teach differing styles. Another request from the Korean government for unification resulted in the formation of the Korea Tae Soo Do Association, which changed its name back to the Korea Taekwondo Association in 1965 following a change of leadership. The International Taekwon-Do Federation was founded in 1966, followed by World Taekwondo Federation in 1973.

Since 2000, taekwondo has been one of only two Asian martial arts (the other being judo) that are included in the Olympic Games; it became a demonstration event starting with the 1988 games in Seoul, and became an official medal event starting with the 2000 games in Sydney. In 2010, taekwondo was accepted as a Commonwealth Games sport.^[26]

One source has estimated that as of 2009, taekwondo was practiced in 123 countries, with over 30 million practitioners and 3 million individuals with black belts throughout the world.^{[citation needed]} The South Korean government in the same year published an estimate of 70 million practitioners in 190 countries.^[27]

Features

A jumping reverse hook kick

See also: List of Taekwondo techniques

Taekwondo is known for its emphasis on kicking techniques, which distinguishes it from martial arts such as karate or southern styles of kung fu. The rationale is that the leg is the longest and strongest weapon a martial artist has, and kicks thus have the greatest potential to execute powerful strikes without successful retaliation.^{[citation needed]}

Taekwondo as a martial art is popular with people of both genders and of many ages. Physically, taekwondo develops strength, speed, balance, flexibility, and stamina. An example of the union of mental and physical discipline is the breaking of wooden boards, bricks or tiles, which requires both physical mastery of the technique and the concentration to focus one's power.^{[citation needed]}

A taekwondo student typically wears a uniform (dobok 도복/道服), often white but sometimes black (or other colors), with a belt (dti 띠) tied around the waist. There are at least three major styles of do-bok, with the most obvious differences being in the style of jacket: (1) the cross-over front jacket that resembles traditional Asian clothing, (2) the V-neck jacket (no cross-over) typically worn by WTF practitioners, and (3) the vertical-closing front jacket (no cross-over) typically worn by ITF practitioners. The belt colour and any insignia thereon indicate the student's rank. In general, the darker the colour, the higher the rank. The school or place where instruction is given is called the do-jang (도장). The grandmaster of the do-jang is called a gwan-jang-nim (관장님); Master (senior instructor or head of do-jang) is called sa-beom-nim (사범님); Instructor is called gyo-san-nim (교사님); Assistant Instructor is called jo-gyo-nim (조교님)

Taekwondo, along with many other martial arts, is traditionally performed in bare feet, though there are specialist training shoes that can sometimes be worn.

Although each taekwondo club or school will be different, a student typically takes part in most or all of the following:^[28]

• Learning the techniques and curriculum of taekwondo
• Both anaerobic and aerobic workout, including stretching
• Self-defense techniques (hosinsool 호신술)
• Patterns (also called forms, poomsae 품새/品勢, teul 틀, hyeong 형/型)
• Sparring (called gyeorugi 겨루기, or matseogi 맞서기 in the ITF), which may include 7-, 3-, 2- and 1-step sparring, free-style sparring, arranged sparring, point sparring, and other types
• Relaxation and meditation exercises; breathing control
• Throwing and/or falling techniques (deonjigi 던지기 and ddeoreojigi 떨어지기)
• A focus on mental and ethical discipline, etiquette, justice, respect, and self-confidence
• Breaking (gyeokpa 격파 or weerok), using techniques to break boards for testing, training and martial arts demonstrations. Demonstrations often also incorporate bricks, tiles, and blocks of ice or other materials. Can be separated into three types:
  • Power breaking – using straightforward techniques to break as many boards as possible
  • Speed breaking – boards are held loosely by one edge, putting special focus on the speed required to perform the break
  • Special techniques – breaking fewer boards but using jumping or flying techniques to attain greater heights, distances, or to clear obstacles
• Exams to progress to the next rank

Some schools teach the "sine wave" technique when performing patterns. This involves raising one's center of gravity between techniques, then lowering it as the technique is performed, producing the up-and-down movement from which the term "sine wave" is derived. Other schools teach that one's center of gravity should remain generally constant throughout the performance of a pattern except where the pattern's description states otherwise.^{[citation needed]}

Organizations

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Four concrete paving bricks broken with a knife-hand strike. Breaking techniques are often practiced in taekwondo.

Two of the most popular systems of taekwondo are named solely after their respective organizations: the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) and the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF).

The WTF was founded in 1973, with roots in the KTA. The KTA Central Dojang had been opened in South Korea in 1972, and a few months later, the name was changed to the Kukkiwon. The following year, the WTF was formed. The International Olympic Committee recognized the WTF and taekwondo sparring in 1980.

Although the terms "WTF" and "Kukkiwon" are often mistakenly used interchangeably, the Kukkiwon is a completely different organization which trains and certifies instructors and issues official dan and poom certificates worldwide. The Kukkiwon has its own unique physical building that contains the administrative offices of Kukkiwon (World Taekwondo Headquarters) in Seoul, South Korea and is the system of taekwondo. The WTF is a tournament committee and is not technically a style or a system.

The ITF was founded in 1966 by Choi Hong Hi as a splinter group from the KTA. After Choi's death in 2002, a number of succession disputes splintered the ITF into three different groups, all claiming to be the original. These three bodies are all private organizations. Two are located in Austria and one in Canada. The unofficial training headquarters of the ITF is located at the Taekwondo Palace in Pyongyang, North Korea, and was founded in the mid-1990s. There are many other private organizations, such as the World Traditional Taekwondo Union and American Taekwondo Association promoting the Songahm style of taekwondo and Rhee Taekwon-Do teaching the military style of taekwondo. Events and competitions held by private organizations are mostly closed to other taekwondo students. However, the WTF-sanctioned events allow any person, regardless of school affiliation or martial arts style, to compete in WTF events as long as he or she is a member of the WTF Member National Association in his or her nation, which is open to anyone to join. The major technical differences among these many organizations revolve around the patterns, called hyeong 형, poomsae 품새, or teul 틀, sets of prescribed formal sequences of movements that demonstrate mastery of posture, positioning, and technique, sparring rules for competition, and philosophy.

In addition to these private organizations, the original schools (kwans) that formed the organization that would eventually become the Kukkiwon continue to exist as independent fraternal membership organizations that support the WTF and the Kukkiwon. The official curriculum of the kwans is that of the Kukkiwon. The kwans also function as a channel for the issuing of Kukkiwon dan and poom certification (black belt ranks) for their members.

Ranks, belts, and promotion

Taekwondo ranks are typically separated into "junior" and "senior," or "student" and "instructor," sections. The junior section typically consists of ten ranks indicated by the Korean word geup 급 (also Romanized as gup or kup). The junior ranks are usually identified by belts of various colors, depending on the school, so these ranks are sometimes called "color belts". Geup rank may be indicated by stripes on belts rather than by colored belts. Students begin at tenth geup (often indicated by a white belt) and advance toward first geup (often indicated by a red belt with a black stripe).

The senior section is typically made up of nine ranks. These ranks are called dan 단, also referred to as "black belts" or "degrees" (as in "third dan" or "third-degree black belt"). Black belts begin at first degree and advance to second, third, and so on. The degree is often indicated on the belt itself with stripes, Roman numerals, or other methods; but sometimes black belts are plain and unadorned regardless of rank.

To advance from one rank to the next, students typically complete promotion tests in which they demonstrate their proficiency in the various aspects of the art before a panel of judges or their teacher. Promotion tests vary from school to school, but may include such elements as the execution of patterns, which combine various techniques in specific sequences; the breaking of boards to demonstrate the ability to use techniques with both power and control; sparring and self-defense to demonstrate the practical application and control of techniques; physical fitness usually with pushups; and answering questions on terminology, concepts and history to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the art. For higher dan tests, students are sometimes required to take a written test or submit a research paper in addition to taking the practical test.

Promotion from one geup to the next can proceed rapidly in some schools, since schools often allow geup promotions every two, three, or four months. Students of geup rank learn the most basic techniques first, and then move on to more advanced techniques as they approach first dan. Many of the older and more traditional schools often take longer to allow students to test for higher ranks than newer, more contemporary schools, as they may not have the required testing intervals.

In contrast, promotion from one dan to the next can take years. The general rule is that a black belt may advance from one rank to the next only after the number of years equivalent to the current rank. For example, a newly-promoted third-degree black belt may not be allowed to advance to fourth-degree until three years have passed. Some organizations also have age requirements related to dan promotions, and may grant younger students poom 품 (junior black belt) ranks rather than dan ranks until they reach a certain age.

Black belt ranks may have titles associated with them, such as "master" and "instructor" but taekwondo organizations vary widely in rules and standards when it comes to ranks and titles. What holds true in one organization may not hold true in another, as is the case in many martial art systems. For example, achieving first dan ranking with three years' training might be typical in one organization, but fast in another organization, and likewise for other ranks. Similarly, the title for a given dan rank in one organization might not be the same as the title for that dan rank in another organization.

In the International Taekwon-Do Federation, instructors holding 1st to 3rd dan are called Boosabum (assistant instructor), those holding 4th to 6th dan are called Sabum (Instructor), those holding 7th to 8th dan are called Sahyun (master), and those holding 9th dan are called Saseong (grand master).^[29] This system does not, however, necessarily apply to other taekwondo organizations.

Philosophy

Since taekwondo is developed in several different kwans, there are several different expressions of taekwondo philosophy. For example, the tenets of the ITF are said to be summed up by the last two phrases in the ITF Student Oath: "I shall be a champion of freedom and justice" and "I shall build a more peaceful world."^{[citation needed]} Many forms of Tae Kwon Do, however, are based on what are called the "Five Tenets of Tae Kwon Do". These tenets are: Courtesy (Ye Ui), Integrity (Yom Chi), Perseverance (In Nae), Self Control (Guk Gi), and Indomitable Spirit (Baekjul Boolgool).

Competition

Taekwondo competition typically involves sparring, breaking, patterns, and self-defense (hosinsul). In Olympic taekwondo competition, however, only sparring (using WTF competition rules) is contested.^[31]

There may be two kinds of competition sparring: point, which all strikes are light contact, and the clock is not stopped when a point is scored; and Olympic, where all strikes are full contact and the clock continues when points are scored. (citing found at aau website)^{[citation needed]}

World Taekwondo Federation

Official WTF trunk protector (hogu), forearm guards and shin guards

Under World Taekwondo Federation and Olympic rules, sparring is a full-contact event and takes place between two competitors in an area measuring 8 meters square. A win can occur by points, or if one competitor is unable to continue (knockout) the other competitor wins^. Each match consists of three semi-continuous rounds of contact, with one minute's rest between rounds. There are two age categories: 14–17 years and 18 years and older.

Points are awarded for permitted, accurate, and powerful techniques to the legal scoring areas; light contact does not score any points. The only techniques allowed are kicks (delivering a strike using an area of the foot below the ankle) and punches (delivering a strike using the closed fist). In most competitions, points are awarded by three corner judges using electronic scoring tallies. Several A-Class tournaments, however, are now trialing electronic scoring equipment contained within competitors' body protectors. This limits corner judges to scoring only attacks to the head. Some believe that the new electronic scoring system will help to reduce controversy concerning judging decisions, but this technology is still not universally accepted.Beginning in 2009, a kick or punch that makes contact with the opponent's hogu (the body guard that functions as a scoring target) scores one point; if a kick to the hogu involved a technique that includes fully turning the attacking competitor's body, so that the back is fully exposed to the targeted competitor during execution of the technique (spinning kick), an additional point is awarded; a kick to the head scores three points; as of October 2010 an additional point is awarded if a turning kick was used to execute this attack. Punches to the head are not allowed. As of March 2010, no additional points are awarded for knocking down an opponent (beyond the normal points awarded for legal strikes).

The referee can give penalties at any time for rule-breaking, such as hitting an area not recognized as a target, usually the legs or neck. Penalties are divided into “Kyong-go (warning penalty)” and “Gam-jeom (deduction penalty)”. Two “Kyong-go” shall be counted as an addition of one (1) point for the opposing contestant. However, the final odd-numbered “Kyong-go” shall not be counted in the grand total.

At the end of three rounds, the competitor with more points wins the match. In the event of a tie at the end of three rounds, a fourth "sudden death" overtime round, sometimes called "Golden Point", will be held to determine the winner after a one minute rest period. In this round the first competitor to score a point wins the match. If there is no score in the additional round the winner shall be decided by superiority as determined by the refereeing officials

Until 2008, if one competitor gained a 7-point lead over the other, or if one competitor reached a total of 12 points, then that competitor was immediately declared the winner and the match ended. These rules were abolished by the WTF at the start of 2009. In October 2010 the WTF reintroduced a point gap rule. Under the new rule if a competitor has a 12 point lead at the end of the second round or achieves a 12 point lead at any point in the 3rd round then the match is over and the athlete in the lead is declared the winner

Depending on the type of tournament and club, competitors may also use fist protectors, foot protectors, instep guards, helmets and mouth guards.

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